lmxopcua/src/Drivers/ZB.MOM.WW.OtOpcUa.Driver.TwinCAT/TwinCATDriver.cs

using System.Collections.Concurrent;
using Microsoft.Extensions.Logging;
using Microsoft.Extensions.Logging.Abstractions;
using ZB.MOM.WW.OtOpcUa.Core.Abstractions;

namespace ZB.MOM.WW.OtOpcUa.Driver.TwinCAT;

/// <summary>
///     TwinCAT ADS driver — talks to Beckhoff PLC runtimes (TC2 + TC3) via AMS / ADS. PR 1 ships
///     the <see cref="IDriver"/> skeleton; read / write / discover / subscribe / probe / host-
///     resolver land in PRs 2 and 3.
/// </summary>
public sealed class TwinCATDriver : IDriver, IReadable, IWritable, ITagDiscovery, ISubscribable,
    IHostConnectivityProbe, IPerCallHostResolver, IRediscoverable, IDisposable, IAsyncDisposable
{
    // Mutable so ReinitializeAsync can apply a new config generation. The constructor seeds
    // it; InitializeAsync re-parses driverConfigJson over the top of it.
    private TwinCATDriverOptions _options;
    private readonly string _driverInstanceId;
    private readonly ITwinCATClientFactory _clientFactory;
    private readonly ILogger<TwinCATDriver> _logger;
    private readonly PollGroupEngine _poll;
    // ConcurrentDictionary so ShutdownAsync (Clear) and ReadAsync/WriteAsync/SubscribeAsync
    // (TryGetValue) don't race — plain Dictionary is not safe for concurrent read+write.
    private readonly ConcurrentDictionary<string, DeviceState> _devices =
        new(StringComparer.OrdinalIgnoreCase);
    // v3: the authored RawPath → definition table. Keyed case-sensitive ordinal (the RawPath is
    // the exact wire reference). Built in InitializeAsync from _options.RawTags via the pure mapper.
    private readonly ConcurrentDictionary<string, TwinCATTagDefinition> _tagsByRawPath =
        new(StringComparer.Ordinal);

    // Per-parent-word RMW gate for BOOL-within-word writes: a single-bit write is a
    // read-modify-write of the parent word (TwinCAT's symbol table doesn't expose "Word.N"),
    // so concurrent bit-writers to the same word must serialise or they lose each other's
    // updates. Keyed by device + parent symbol. (Cannot guard against the PLC program writing
    // the word between our read and write — inherent to RMW.)
    private readonly ConcurrentDictionary<string, SemaphoreSlim> _bitRmwLocks =
        new(StringComparer.OrdinalIgnoreCase);

    // v3: resolves a read/write/subscribe fullReference (always a RawPath) to a tag definition by a
    // single hit on the authored _tagsByRawPath table. A miss is a miss — the driver surfaces
    // BadNodeIdUnknown (no blob-parse fallback).
    private readonly EquipmentTagRefResolver<TwinCATTagDefinition> _resolver;

    private DriverHealth _health = new(DriverState.Unknown, null, null);

    /// <summary>Occurs when a subscribed tag value changes.</summary>
    public event EventHandler<DataChangeEventArgs>? OnDataChange;
    /// <summary>Occurs when a device host connectivity status changes.</summary>
    public event EventHandler<HostStatusChangedEventArgs>? OnHostStatusChanged;
    /// <summary>Occurs when the Galaxy object hierarchy or TwinCAT symbol table is rediscovered.</summary>
    public event EventHandler<RediscoveryEventArgs>? OnRediscoveryNeeded;

    /// <summary>Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="TwinCATDriver"/> class.</summary>
    /// <param name="options">Driver configuration options.</param>
    /// <param name="driverInstanceId">Unique driver instance identifier.</param>
    /// <param name="clientFactory">Optional ADS client factory; defaults to <see cref="AdsTwinCATClientFactory"/>.</param>
    /// <param name="logger">Optional logger; defaults to <see cref="NullLogger{TwinCATDriver}"/>.</param>
    public TwinCATDriver(TwinCATDriverOptions options, string driverInstanceId,
        ITwinCATClientFactory? clientFactory = null,
        ILogger<TwinCATDriver>? logger = null)
    {
        ArgumentNullException.ThrowIfNull(options);
        _options = options;
        _driverInstanceId = driverInstanceId;
        _clientFactory = clientFactory ?? new AdsTwinCATClientFactory();
        _logger = logger ?? NullLogger<TwinCATDriver>.Instance;
        _resolver = new EquipmentTagRefResolver<TwinCATTagDefinition>(
            r => _tagsByRawPath.TryGetValue(r, out var t) ? t : null);
        _poll = new PollGroupEngine(
            reader: ReadAsync,
            onChange: (handle, tagRef, snapshot) =>
                OnDataChange?.Invoke(this, new DataChangeEventArgs(handle, tagRef, snapshot)),
            onError: HandlePollError,
            backoffCap: PollBackoffCap);
    }

    /// <summary>Upper bound on the poll-loop failure backoff — adopts the S7-proven 30 s cap fleet-wide (05/STAB-8).</summary>
    private static readonly TimeSpan PollBackoffCap = TimeSpan.FromSeconds(30);

    /// <summary>
    ///     05/STAB-9 — routes a poll-loop reader failure to the driver health surface: logs it and
    ///     degrades to <see cref="DriverState.Degraded"/> preserving <c>LastSuccessfulRead</c>.
    ///     Never downgrades a <see cref="DriverState.Faulted"/> state (a stronger, config-level signal).
    /// </summary>
    /// <param name="ex">The exception caught by the poll engine.</param>
    internal void HandlePollError(Exception ex)
    {
        _logger.LogWarning(ex, "TwinCAT poll reader failed. Driver={DriverInstanceId}", _driverInstanceId);
        var current = _health;
        if (current.State != DriverState.Faulted)
            _health = new DriverHealth(DriverState.Degraded, current.LastSuccessfulRead, ex.Message);
    }

    /// <inheritdoc />
    public string DriverInstanceId => _driverInstanceId;
    /// <inheritdoc />
    public string DriverType => "TwinCAT";

    /// <inheritdoc />
    public Task InitializeAsync(string driverConfigJson, CancellationToken cancellationToken)
    {
        _health = new DriverHealth(DriverState.Initializing, null, null);
        try
        {
            // Apply the supplied config generation. A blank or content-free document keeps the
            // constructor-seeded options — that path covers callers that have already
            // materialised options up front (the factory passes both, in agreement).
            if (!string.IsNullOrWhiteSpace(driverConfigJson))
            {
                var parsed = TwinCATDriverFactoryExtensions.ParseOptions(driverConfigJson, _driverInstanceId);
                if (parsed.Devices.Count > 0 || parsed.RawTags.Count > 0)
                    _options = parsed;
            }

            foreach (var device in _options.Devices)
            {
                var addr = TwinCATAmsAddress.TryParse(device.HostAddress)
                    ?? throw new InvalidOperationException(
                        $"TwinCAT device has invalid HostAddress '{device.HostAddress}' — expected 'ads://{{netId}}:{{port}}'.");
                _devices[device.HostAddress] = new DeviceState(addr, device);
            }

            // Build the RawPath → definition table from the authored raw tags. Each entry's TagConfig
            // blob is mapped by the pure factory; the entry's WriteIdempotent flag AND its owning
            // DeviceName are threaded onto the def (both live on the RawTagEntry, not inside the blob).
            // DeviceName is resolved to the target's live host (def.DeviceHostAddress) via ResolveDeviceHost
            // so the existing device routing (_devices keyed by HostAddress) is unchanged. A mapper miss is
            // skipped (logged), never thrown — a bad tag must not fail the whole driver init.
            foreach (var entry in _options.RawTags)
            {
                if (TwinCATTagDefinitionFactory.FromTagConfig(entry.TagConfig, entry.RawPath, out var def))
                    _tagsByRawPath[entry.RawPath] = def with
                    {
                        WriteIdempotent = entry.WriteIdempotent,
                        DeviceHostAddress = ResolveDeviceHost(entry.DeviceName),
                    };
                else
                    _logger.LogWarning(
                        "TwinCAT tag config did not map to a definition; skipping. Driver={DriverInstanceId} RawPath={RawPath}",
                        _driverInstanceId, entry.RawPath);
            }

            if (_options.Probe.Enabled)
            {
                foreach (var state in _devices.Values)
                {
                    state.ProbeCts = new CancellationTokenSource();
                    var ct = state.ProbeCts.Token;
                    // Store the task so ShutdownAsync can await it.
                    state.ProbeTask = Task.Run(() => ProbeLoopAsync(state, ct), ct);
                }
            }
            _health = new DriverHealth(DriverState.Healthy, DateTime.UtcNow, null);
        }
        catch (Exception ex)
        {
            _health = new DriverHealth(DriverState.Faulted, null, ex.Message);
            throw;
        }
        return Task.CompletedTask;
    }

    /// <inheritdoc />
    public async Task ReinitializeAsync(string driverConfigJson, CancellationToken cancellationToken)
    {
        await ShutdownAsync(cancellationToken).ConfigureAwait(false);
        await InitializeAsync(driverConfigJson, cancellationToken).ConfigureAwait(false);
    }

    /// <inheritdoc />
    public async Task ShutdownAsync(CancellationToken cancellationToken)
    {
        // Native subs first — disposing the handles is cheap + lets the client close its
        // notifications before the AdsClient itself goes away.
        foreach (var sub in _nativeSubs.Values)
            foreach (var r in sub.Registrations) { try { r.Dispose(); } catch { } }
        _nativeSubs.Clear();

        await _poll.DisposeAsync().ConfigureAwait(false);

        // Cancel every probe loop and await its task before disposing the client + gate so the
        // loop can never touch a disposed object.
        foreach (var state in _devices.Values)
        {
            try { state.ProbeCts?.Cancel(); } catch { }
            if (state.ProbeTask is Task pt)
            {
                try { await pt.ConfigureAwait(false); }
                catch (OperationCanceledException) { /* expected — probe loop exits on cancel */ }
                catch { /* other probe errors are not fatal to shutdown */ }
            }
            state.ProbeCts?.Dispose();
            state.ProbeCts = null;
            state.DisposeClient();
            state.DisposeGate();
        }
        _devices.Clear();
        _tagsByRawPath.Clear();
        _resolver.Clear(); // no-op in v3 (the resolver reads the live table by closure); kept for symmetry
        // Dispose + clear the per-parent-word RMW gates so ReinitializeAsync cycles don't orphan
        // their SemaphoreSlim instances (each leaks a wait handle once contended).
        foreach (var sem in _bitRmwLocks.Values) sem.Dispose();
        _bitRmwLocks.Clear();
        _health = new DriverHealth(DriverState.Unknown, _health.LastSuccessfulRead, null);
    }

    /// <inheritdoc />
    public DriverHealth GetHealth() => _health;

    /// <inheritdoc />
    // This driver holds no flushable symbol cache — BrowseSymbolsAsync streams and discards; the
    // footprint reflects live allocations only: ~256 bytes per pre-declared tag (tag-definition
    // record + dictionary overhead) and ~512 bytes per active native subscription.
    public long GetMemoryFootprint() =>
        (_tagsByRawPath.Count * 256L) + (_nativeSubs.Count * 512L);

    /// <inheritdoc />
    // No flushable cache exists in this driver — the symbol table is streamed fresh on every
    // DiscoverAsync call. This is a no-op but is deliberately present so Core's cache-budget
    // enforcement sees a compliant Tier-A driver.
    public Task FlushOptionalCachesAsync(CancellationToken cancellationToken) => Task.CompletedTask;

    /// <summary>Gets the count of configured devices.</summary>
    internal int DeviceCount => _devices.Count;
    /// <summary>Gets the device state for the specified host address.</summary>
    /// <param name="hostAddress">The ADS host address.</param>
    /// <returns>Device state or null if not found.</returns>
    internal DeviceState? GetDeviceState(string hostAddress) =>
        _devices.TryGetValue(hostAddress, out var s) ? s : null;

    // ---- IReadable ----

    /// <inheritdoc />
    public async Task<IReadOnlyList<DataValueSnapshot>> ReadAsync(
        IReadOnlyList<string> fullReferences, CancellationToken cancellationToken)
    {
        ArgumentNullException.ThrowIfNull(fullReferences);
        var now = DateTime.UtcNow;
        var results = new DataValueSnapshot[fullReferences.Count];

        for (var i = 0; i < fullReferences.Count; i++)
        {
            var reference = fullReferences[i];
            if (!_resolver.TryResolve(reference, out var def))
            {
                results[i] = new DataValueSnapshot(null, TwinCATStatusMapper.BadNodeIdUnknown, null, now);
                continue;
            }
            if (!_devices.TryGetValue(def.DeviceHostAddress, out var device))
            {
                results[i] = new DataValueSnapshot(null, TwinCATStatusMapper.BadNodeIdUnknown, null, now);
                continue;
            }

            try
            {
                var client = await EnsureConnectedAsync(device, cancellationToken).ConfigureAwait(false);
                var parsed = TwinCATSymbolPath.TryParse(def.SymbolPath);
                var symbolName = parsed?.ToAdsSymbolName() ?? def.SymbolPath;
                // An array-typed tag (def.ArrayLength != null) drives a native 1-D ADS array read;
                // the boxed result is an element-typed CLR array. Scalar tags pass null
                // (scalar path) — bit-indexed BOOLs are inherently scalar so the client ignores
                // arrayCount when a bitIndex is present (Phase 4c).
                var (value, status) = await client.ReadValueAsync(
                    symbolName, def.DataType, parsed?.BitIndex, def.ArrayLength, cancellationToken)
                    .ConfigureAwait(false);

                results[i] = new DataValueSnapshot(value, status, now, now);
                if (status == TwinCATStatusMapper.Good)
                    _health = new DriverHealth(DriverState.Healthy, now, null);
                else
                {
                    _logger.LogWarning(
                        "TwinCAT driver '{DriverInstanceId}' ADS read error 0x{Status:X8} for '{Reference}'",
                        _driverInstanceId, status, reference);
                    _health = new DriverHealth(DriverState.Degraded, _health.LastSuccessfulRead,
                        $"ADS status {status:X8} reading {reference}");
                }
            }
            catch (OperationCanceledException) { throw; }
            catch (Exception ex)
            {
                results[i] = new DataValueSnapshot(null, TwinCATStatusMapper.BadCommunicationError, null, now);
                _health = new DriverHealth(DriverState.Degraded, _health.LastSuccessfulRead, ex.Message);
            }
        }

        return results;
    }

    // ---- IWritable ----

    /// <inheritdoc />
    public async Task<IReadOnlyList<WriteResult>> WriteAsync(
        IReadOnlyList<WriteRequest> writes, CancellationToken cancellationToken)
    {
        ArgumentNullException.ThrowIfNull(writes);
        var results = new WriteResult[writes.Count];

        for (var i = 0; i < writes.Count; i++)
        {
            var w = writes[i];
            if (!_resolver.TryResolve(w.FullReference, out var def))
            {
                results[i] = new WriteResult(TwinCATStatusMapper.BadNodeIdUnknown);
                continue;
            }
            if (!def.Writable)
            {
                results[i] = new WriteResult(TwinCATStatusMapper.BadNotWritable);
                continue;
            }
            if (!_devices.TryGetValue(def.DeviceHostAddress, out var device))
            {
                results[i] = new WriteResult(TwinCATStatusMapper.BadNodeIdUnknown);
                continue;
            }

            try
            {
                var client = await EnsureConnectedAsync(device, cancellationToken).ConfigureAwait(false);
                var parsed = TwinCATSymbolPath.TryParse(def.SymbolPath);

                // BOOL-within-word write — read-modify-write of the parent word. Mirrors the bit-read
                // (AdsTwinCATClient.ReadValueAsync) which reads the parent as uint: read the parent as
                // UDInt (-> uint), flip the bit, write it back, all under a per-parent lock.
                if (def.DataType == TwinCATDataType.Bool && parsed?.BitIndex is int bit)
                {
                    var parentPath = (parsed with { BitIndex = null }).ToAdsSymbolName();
                    var gate = _bitRmwLocks.GetOrAdd(
                        $"{def.DeviceHostAddress}|{parentPath}", static _ => new SemaphoreSlim(1, 1));
                    await gate.WaitAsync(cancellationToken).ConfigureAwait(false);
                    try
                    {
                        var (parentValue, readStatus) = await client.ReadValueAsync(
                            parentPath, TwinCATDataType.UDInt, null, null, cancellationToken).ConfigureAwait(false);
                        if (readStatus != TwinCATStatusMapper.Good)
                        {
                            results[i] = new WriteResult(readStatus);
                        }
                        else if (parentValue is null)
                        {
                            // Good status but no value — treating null as 0 would write a zeroed
                            // word and clear every bit set on the device. Surface a Bad status and
                            // write nothing rather than corrupt the parent word.
                            results[i] = new WriteResult(TwinCATStatusMapper.BadCommunicationError);
                        }
                        else
                        {
                            var word = Convert.ToUInt32(parentValue);
                            var updated = Convert.ToBoolean(w.Value) ? word | (1u << bit) : word & ~(1u << bit);
                            var writeStatus = await client.WriteValueAsync(
                                parentPath, TwinCATDataType.UDInt, null, updated, cancellationToken).ConfigureAwait(false);
                            results[i] = new WriteResult(writeStatus);
                        }
                    }
                    finally
                    {
                        gate.Release();
                    }
                    continue;
                }

                var symbolName = parsed?.ToAdsSymbolName() ?? def.SymbolPath;
                var status = await client.WriteValueAsync(
                    symbolName, def.DataType, parsed?.BitIndex, w.Value, cancellationToken).ConfigureAwait(false);
                results[i] = new WriteResult(status);
            }
            catch (OperationCanceledException) { throw; }
            catch (NotSupportedException nse)
            {
                results[i] = new WriteResult(TwinCATStatusMapper.BadNotSupported);
                _health = new DriverHealth(DriverState.Degraded, _health.LastSuccessfulRead, nse.Message);
            }
            catch (Exception ex) when (ex is FormatException or InvalidCastException)
            {
                results[i] = new WriteResult(TwinCATStatusMapper.BadTypeMismatch);
            }
            catch (OverflowException)
            {
                results[i] = new WriteResult(TwinCATStatusMapper.BadOutOfRange);
            }
            catch (Exception ex)
            {
                results[i] = new WriteResult(TwinCATStatusMapper.BadCommunicationError);
                _health = new DriverHealth(DriverState.Degraded, _health.LastSuccessfulRead, ex.Message);
            }
        }

        return results;
    }

    // ---- ITagDiscovery ----

    /// <inheritdoc />
    // Run-once: DiscoverAsync emits pre-declared tags and (when EnableControllerBrowse is set)
    // fully awaits the controller symbol browse within the single call, streaming the complete
    // node set in one pass — nothing fills in asynchronously after connect, so a single
    // discovery pass is sufficient.
    public DiscoveryRediscoverPolicy RediscoverPolicy => DiscoveryRediscoverPolicy.Once;

    /// <summary>ADS symbol upload is real device enumeration — config-gated on
    /// EnableControllerBrowse, which the universal browser's PatchForBrowse guarantees at open time.</summary>
    public bool SupportsOnlineDiscovery => true;

    /// <inheritdoc />
    public async Task DiscoverAsync(IAddressSpaceBuilder builder, CancellationToken cancellationToken)
    {
        ArgumentNullException.ThrowIfNull(builder);
        var root = builder.Folder("TwinCAT", "TwinCAT");
        foreach (var device in _options.Devices)
        {
            var label = device.DeviceName ?? device.HostAddress;
            var deviceFolder = root.Folder(device.HostAddress, label);

            // Authored raw tags (mapped into the RawPath → def table at Initialize) — always emitted
            // as the authoritative config path. The def's Name is the RawPath, used for both the browse
            // name and the driver FullName; it is routed to this device by def.DeviceHostAddress.
            var tagsForDevice = _tagsByRawPath.Values.Where(t =>
                string.Equals(t.DeviceHostAddress, device.HostAddress, StringComparison.OrdinalIgnoreCase));
            foreach (var tag in tagsForDevice)
            {
                deviceFolder.Variable(tag.Name, tag.Name, new DriverAttributeInfo(
                    FullName: tag.Name,
                    DriverDataType: tag.DataType.ToDriverDataType(),
                    // A pre-declared tag with a positive ArrayLength is a 1-D array node; null
                    // (or non-positive) stays scalar (Phase 4c).
                    IsArray: tag.ArrayLength is > 0,
                    ArrayDim: tag.ArrayLength is > 0 ? (uint)tag.ArrayLength.Value : null,
                    SecurityClass: tag.Writable
                        ? SecurityClassification.Operate
                        : SecurityClassification.ViewOnly,
                    IsHistorized: false,
                    IsAlarm: false,
                    WriteIdempotent: tag.WriteIdempotent));
            }

            // Controller-side symbol browse — opt-in. Falls back to pre-declared-only on any
            // client-side error so a flaky symbol-table download doesn't block discovery.
            if (_options.EnableControllerBrowse && _devices.TryGetValue(device.HostAddress, out var state))
            {
                IAddressSpaceBuilder? discoveredFolder = null;
                try
                {
                    var client = await EnsureConnectedAsync(state, cancellationToken).ConfigureAwait(false);
                    await foreach (var sym in client.BrowseSymbolsAsync(cancellationToken).ConfigureAwait(false))
                    {
                        if (TwinCATSystemSymbolFilter.IsSystemSymbol(sym.InstancePath)) continue;
                        if (sym.DataType is not TwinCATDataType dt) continue; // unsupported type

                        discoveredFolder ??= deviceFolder.Folder("Discovered", "Discovered");
                        discoveredFolder.Variable(sym.InstancePath, sym.InstancePath, new DriverAttributeInfo(
                            FullName: sym.InstancePath,
                            DriverDataType: dt.ToDriverDataType(),
                            // A discovered 1-D array symbol carries its element count in
                            // sym.ArrayLength (the browser reports the ELEMENT type as dt);
                            // multi-dim/unsupported arrays arrive with null ArrayLength → scalar
                            // (Phase 4c).
                            IsArray: sym.ArrayLength is > 0,
                            ArrayDim: sym.ArrayLength is > 0 ? (uint)sym.ArrayLength.Value : null,
                            SecurityClass: sym.ReadOnly
                                ? SecurityClassification.ViewOnly
                                : SecurityClassification.Operate,
                            IsHistorized: false,
                            IsAlarm: false,
                            WriteIdempotent: false));
                    }
                }
                catch (OperationCanceledException) { throw; }
                catch (Exception ex)
                {
                    // Symbol-loader failure is non-fatal to discovery — pre-declared tags already
                    // shipped. Log so operators can correlate the partial discovery.
                    _logger.LogWarning(ex,
                        "TwinCAT driver '{DriverInstanceId}' symbol browse failed for device " +
                        "'{HostAddress}'; falling back to pre-declared tags only",
                        _driverInstanceId, device.HostAddress);
                }
            }
        }
    }

    // ---- ISubscribable (native ADS notifications with poll fallback) ----

    private readonly ConcurrentDictionary<long, NativeSubscription> _nativeSubs = new();
    private long _nextNativeSubId;
    private long _nextRegId;

    /// <inheritdoc />
    // Subscribe via native ADS notifications when TwinCATDriverOptions.UseNativeNotifications is
    // true, otherwise fall through to the shared PollGroupEngine. Native path registers one
    // notification per tag against the target's PLC runtime — the PLC pushes changes on its own
    // cycle so we skip the poll loop entirely. Each registration stores its REPLAYABLE INTENT on
    // the owning device so EnsureConnectedAsync can re-register it after a reconnect.
    public async Task<ISubscriptionHandle> SubscribeAsync(
        IReadOnlyList<string> fullReferences, TimeSpan publishingInterval, CancellationToken cancellationToken)
    {
        if (!_options.UseNativeNotifications)
            return _poll.Subscribe(fullReferences, publishingInterval);

        var id = Interlocked.Increment(ref _nextNativeSubId);
        var handle = new NativeSubscriptionHandle(id);
        var registrations = new List<NativeRegistration>(fullReferences.Count);

        try
        {
            foreach (var reference in fullReferences)
            {
                if (!_resolver.TryResolve(reference, out var def)) continue;
                if (!_devices.TryGetValue(def.DeviceHostAddress, out var device)) continue;

                var parsed = TwinCATSymbolPath.TryParse(def.SymbolPath);
                var symbolName = parsed?.ToAdsSymbolName() ?? def.SymbolPath;
                var bitIndex = parsed?.BitIndex;

                // The callback closes over the stable (handle, reference) pair, so it survives a
                // client swap unchanged — replay re-registers the SAME intent onto the new client.
                var reg = new NativeRegistration(
                    Interlocked.Increment(ref _nextRegId), device, reference, symbolName,
                    def.DataType, bitIndex, publishingInterval,
                    onChange: (_, value) => OnDataChange?.Invoke(this,
                        new DataChangeEventArgs(handle, reference, new DataValueSnapshot(
                            value, TwinCATStatusMapper.Good, DateTime.UtcNow, DateTime.UtcNow))),
                    // 05/STAB-16: when the handle goes dead (a failed replay) push a Bad snapshot so
                    // subscribers see the tag go Bad instead of a frozen-Good-stale value.
                    onUnavailable: () => OnDataChange?.Invoke(this,
                        new DataChangeEventArgs(handle, reference, new DataValueSnapshot(
                            null, TwinCATStatusMapper.BadCommunicationError, null, DateTime.UtcNow))));

                await RegisterNotificationAsync(device, reg, cancellationToken).ConfigureAwait(false);
                registrations.Add(reg);
            }
        }
        catch (Exception ex)
        {
            // On any registration failure, tear down everything we got so far + rethrow. Leaves
            // the subscription in a clean "never existed" state rather than a half-registered
            // state the caller has to clean up.
            _logger.LogWarning(ex,
                "TwinCAT driver '{DriverInstanceId}' native-notification registration failed; " +
                "tearing down {Count} partial registrations",
                _driverInstanceId, registrations.Count);
            foreach (var r in registrations) { try { r.Dispose(); } catch { } }
            throw;
        }

        _nativeSubs[id] = new NativeSubscription(handle, registrations);
        return handle;
    }

    /// <summary>
    ///     Registers one native notification and records its replayable intent on the device — both
    ///     under the device <see cref="DeviceState.ConnectGate"/> so the register can't race a
    ///     concurrent reconnect-replay (which also runs under that gate). The intent is added to the
    ///     device registry only AFTER the handle is live, so a replay triggered by this same
    ///     <c>EnsureConnected</c> can't double-register the not-yet-stored tag.
    /// </summary>
    private async Task RegisterNotificationAsync(DeviceState device, NativeRegistration reg, CancellationToken ct)
    {
        await device.ConnectGate.WaitAsync(ct).ConfigureAwait(false);
        try
        {
            var client = await EnsureConnectedUnderGateAsync(device, ct, timeoutOverride: null).ConfigureAwait(false);
            var newHandle = await client.AddNotificationAsync(
                reg.SymbolName, reg.DataType, reg.BitIndex, reg.Interval,
                _options.NotificationMaxDelayMs, reg.OnChange, ct).ConfigureAwait(false);
            reg.SwapHandle(newHandle); // initial set — previous handle is null
            device.NativeRegistrations[reg.Id] = reg;
        }
        finally
        {
            device.ConnectGate.Release();
        }
    }

    /// <inheritdoc />
    public Task UnsubscribeAsync(ISubscriptionHandle handle, CancellationToken cancellationToken)
    {
        if (handle is NativeSubscriptionHandle native && _nativeSubs.TryRemove(native.Id, out var sub))
        {
            // NativeRegistration.Dispose removes itself from its device registry (so a later replay
            // won't touch it) and disposes its live handle.
            foreach (var r in sub.Registrations) { try { r.Dispose(); } catch { } }
            return Task.CompletedTask;
        }
        _poll.Unsubscribe(handle);
        return Task.CompletedTask;
    }

    private sealed record NativeSubscriptionHandle(long Id) : ISubscriptionHandle
    {
        /// <inheritdoc />
        public string DiagnosticId => $"twincat-native-sub-{Id}";
    }

    private sealed record NativeSubscription(
        NativeSubscriptionHandle Handle,
        IReadOnlyList<NativeRegistration> Registrations);

    /// <summary>
    ///     One live native-notification registration: its replayable intent plus the current live
    ///     <see cref="ITwinCATNotificationHandle"/>. The handle is swapped (not re-created) when the
    ///     device reconnects, so unsubscribe / teardown always dispose the latest one. The handle
    ///     field is exchanged atomically so a reconnect-replay swap and an unsubscribe dispose can't
    ///     corrupt each other on the common path.
    /// </summary>
    internal sealed class NativeRegistration : IDisposable
    {
        /// <summary>Globally-unique registration id (registry key on the device).</summary>
        public long Id { get; }
        /// <summary>The device this notification is registered against.</summary>
        public DeviceState Device { get; }
        /// <summary>Driver-side full reference the pushed value is reported under.</summary>
        public string Reference { get; }
        /// <summary>ADS symbol name (resolved from the symbol path).</summary>
        public string SymbolName { get; }
        /// <summary>Declared data type.</summary>
        public TwinCATDataType DataType { get; }
        /// <summary>Bit index for a BOOL-within-word symbol; null otherwise.</summary>
        public int? BitIndex { get; }
        /// <summary>Requested notification interval.</summary>
        public TimeSpan Interval { get; }
        /// <summary>Value-change callback (closes over the owning subscription handle + reference).</summary>
        public Action<string, object?> OnChange { get; }

        /// <summary>
        ///     Bad-quality callback (05/STAB-16). Invoked when this registration's handle goes dead
        ///     (a failed replay) so subscribers observe the tag go Bad instead of frozen-Good-stale —
        ///     the <see cref="OnChange"/> shape has no quality channel. Closes over the same
        ///     (handle, reference) pair as <see cref="OnChange"/>.
        /// </summary>
        public Action OnUnavailable { get; }

        private ITwinCATNotificationHandle? _handle;

        /// <summary>
        ///     True while this registration holds a live notification handle. False after a failed
        ///     replay marks it dead (05/STAB-16) — the probe-tick retry re-registers such handles.
        /// </summary>
        public bool HasLiveHandle => Volatile.Read(ref _handle) is not null;

        /// <summary>Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="NativeRegistration"/> class.</summary>
        /// <param name="id">Globally-unique registration id (registry key on the device).</param>
        /// <param name="device">The device this notification is registered against.</param>
        /// <param name="reference">Driver-side full reference the pushed value is reported under.</param>
        /// <param name="symbolName">ADS symbol name (resolved from the symbol path).</param>
        /// <param name="dataType">Declared data type.</param>
        /// <param name="bitIndex">Bit index for a BOOL-within-word symbol; null otherwise.</param>
        /// <param name="interval">Requested notification interval.</param>
        /// <param name="onChange">Value-change callback (closes over the owning subscription handle + reference).</param>
        /// <param name="onUnavailable">Bad-quality callback fired when the handle goes dead (05/STAB-16).</param>
        public NativeRegistration(long id, DeviceState device, string reference, string symbolName,
            TwinCATDataType dataType, int? bitIndex, TimeSpan interval, Action<string, object?> onChange,
            Action onUnavailable)
        {
            Id = id;
            Device = device;
            Reference = reference;
            SymbolName = symbolName;
            DataType = dataType;
            BitIndex = bitIndex;
            Interval = interval;
            OnChange = onChange;
            OnUnavailable = onUnavailable;
        }

        /// <summary>Installs a freshly-registered handle and returns the previous one (null on first set).</summary>
        /// <param name="newHandle">The newly-registered notification handle.</param>
        /// <returns>The previous handle, or null.</returns>
        public ITwinCATNotificationHandle? SwapHandle(ITwinCATNotificationHandle newHandle) =>
            Interlocked.Exchange(ref _handle, newHandle);

        /// <summary>
        ///     Atomically clears the live handle and returns the previous one (05/STAB-16). The caller
        ///     disposes the returned (already-dead) handle best-effort. After this
        ///     <see cref="HasLiveHandle"/> is false until a retry re-registers.
        /// </summary>
        /// <returns>The previous handle, or null.</returns>
        public ITwinCATNotificationHandle? MarkHandleDead() =>
            Interlocked.Exchange(ref _handle, null);

        /// <summary>Removes this registration from its device and disposes its live handle.</summary>
        public void Dispose()
        {
            Device.NativeRegistrations.TryRemove(Id, out _);
            var h = Interlocked.Exchange(ref _handle, null);
            try { h?.Dispose(); } catch { /* best-effort */ }
        }
    }

    // ---- IHostConnectivityProbe ----

    /// <inheritdoc />
    public IReadOnlyList<HostConnectivityStatus> GetHostStatuses() =>
        [.. _devices.Values.Select(s => new HostConnectivityStatus(s.Options.HostAddress, s.HostState, s.HostStateChangedUtc))];

    private async Task ProbeLoopAsync(DeviceState state, CancellationToken ct)
    {
        while (!ct.IsCancellationRequested)
        {
            var success = false;
            try
            {
                // Probe-initiated connects honor TwinCATProbeOptions.Timeout — distinct from
                // the driver-wide _options.Timeout used by reads/writes.
                // The probe bypasses the connect backoff — its own interval is the bounded recovery
                // cadence, and a successful probe connect resets the window for the data path.
                var client = await EnsureConnectedAsync(state, ct, _options.Probe.Timeout, bypassBackoff: true)
                    .ConfigureAwait(false);
                success = await client.ProbeAsync(ct).ConfigureAwait(false);

                // A locally-connected client whose wire probe FAILS is wire-dead but port-open:
                // force a recycle so the next tick rebuilds + replays native notifications. Without
                // this the IsConnected fast-path would keep handing back the dead client forever
                // (the compounding bug — native pushes would never recover).
                if (!success)
                    await RecycleClientAsync(state, ct).ConfigureAwait(false);
                else
                    // 05/STAB-16: on a healthy tick, re-register any notifications whose replay
                    // failed (a transient AddNotification blip) so they recover without a client swap.
                    await RetryDeadRegistrationsAsync(state, ct).ConfigureAwait(false);
            }
            catch (OperationCanceledException) when (ct.IsCancellationRequested) { break; }
            catch
            {
                // Probe threw — the connect-failure path clears the client only when the CONNECT
                // failed; a throw from ProbeAsync on an already-connected client would leave it in
                // place, so force a recycle to guarantee the next tick rebuilds + replays. A shutdown
                // racing this recycle cancels the gate wait (STAB-12) — exit the loop cleanly.
                try { await RecycleClientAsync(state, ct).ConfigureAwait(false); }
                catch (OperationCanceledException) when (ct.IsCancellationRequested) { break; }
            }

            TransitionDeviceState(state, success ? HostState.Running : HostState.Stopped);

            try { await Task.Delay(_options.Probe.Interval, ct).ConfigureAwait(false); }
            catch (OperationCanceledException) { break; }
        }
    }

    private void TransitionDeviceState(DeviceState state, HostState newState)
    {
        HostState old;
        lock (state.ProbeLock)
        {
            old = state.HostState;
            if (old == newState) return;
            state.HostState = newState;
            state.HostStateChangedUtc = DateTime.UtcNow;
        }
        _logger.LogInformation(
            "TwinCAT driver '{DriverInstanceId}' device '{HostAddress}' state: {OldState} → {NewState}",
            _driverInstanceId, state.Options.HostAddress, old, newState);
        OnHostStatusChanged?.Invoke(this,
            new HostStatusChangedEventArgs(state.Options.HostAddress, old, newState));
    }

    // ---- IPerCallHostResolver ----

    /// <summary>
    ///     Documented sentinel returned by <see cref="ResolveHost"/> when neither the tag nor a
    ///     fallback device is configured. Empty-string never matches an
    ///     <see cref="HostConnectivityStatus.HostName"/> emitted by this driver (every real
    ///     host is an <c>ads://…</c> URI), so it cleanly signals "unresolved" without colliding
    ///     with a real host key. Used to be <see cref="DriverInstanceId"/>, which is a logical
    ///     config-DB identifier — that collided with consumers who expected the resolver and the
    ///     connectivity-status table to share keys.
    /// </summary>
    public const string UnresolvedHostSentinel = "";

    /// <summary>
    ///     Resolve a <see cref="RawTagEntry.DeviceName"/> to the device's live host address
    ///     (<see cref="TwinCATTagDefinition.DeviceHostAddress"/>) used to route reads/writes/subscriptions
    ///     to the right connection. <b>TODO(v3 WaveC):</b> the live device host must come from the
    ///     <c>Device</c> row's <c>DeviceConfig</c> (the deploy artifact will carry it); today we resolve
    ///     the DeviceName against this driver's own <see cref="TwinCATDriverOptions.Devices"/> list —
    ///     first by <see cref="TwinCATDeviceOptions.DeviceName"/>, then by
    ///     <see cref="TwinCATDeviceOptions.HostAddress"/> (callers that route by host, e.g. the Client
    ///     CLI, pass the host string as the DeviceName). An empty DeviceName routes to the sole device
    ///     on a single-device instance; an unmatched name leaves the def unrouted (→ BadNodeIdUnknown).
    /// </summary>
    /// <param name="deviceName">The owning device's name (or host) from the raw-tag entry.</param>
    /// <returns>The resolved device host address, or empty when unresolved.</returns>
    private string ResolveDeviceHost(string deviceName)
    {
        var devices = _options.Devices;
        if (string.IsNullOrEmpty(deviceName))
            return devices.Count == 1 ? devices[0].HostAddress : "";
        foreach (var d in devices)
            if (string.Equals(d.DeviceName, deviceName, StringComparison.OrdinalIgnoreCase))
                return d.HostAddress;
        foreach (var d in devices)
            if (string.Equals(d.HostAddress, deviceName, StringComparison.OrdinalIgnoreCase))
                return d.HostAddress;
        return "";
    }

    /// <summary>
    ///     Resolve a reference to the device host that keys its per-host resilience
    ///     (bulkhead / circuit breaker). CONV-4: routes through
    ///     <see cref="EquipmentTagRefResolver{TDef}"/> so an equipment-tag reference (raw TagConfig
    ///     JSON) resolves to its OWN authored device rather than the first-device fallback. The
    ///     empty-host guard keeps an address-less equipment tag on the fallback rather than keying
    ///     the <see cref="UnresolvedHostSentinel"/>. The resolver caches parses, so this adds no
    ///     per-call cost after first use.
    /// </summary>
    /// <param name="fullReference">The tag reference (authored name or equipment-tag JSON).</param>
    /// <returns>The device host key.</returns>
    public string ResolveHost(string fullReference)
    {
        if (_resolver.TryResolve(fullReference, out var def) && !string.IsNullOrEmpty(def.DeviceHostAddress))
            return def.DeviceHostAddress;
        // First device's HostAddress when one exists; otherwise the unresolved sentinel —
        // intentionally NOT DriverInstanceId, which is a config-DB key, not a host address.
        return _options.Devices.FirstOrDefault()?.HostAddress ?? UnresolvedHostSentinel;
    }

    /// <summary>
    ///     Lazily connect a device's client, serialized per device by
    ///     <see cref="DeviceState.ConnectGate"/>. Without the gate, a
    ///     concurrent read / write / probe could each create + connect a separate client and
    ///     leak all-but-one, or dispose a client another thread is mid-connect on. The S7 and
    ///     AB-CIP drivers serialize device access the same way; single-connection-per-PLC is
    ///     also what docs/v2/driver-specs.md recommends.
    /// </summary>
    private async Task<ITwinCATClient> EnsureConnectedAsync(
        DeviceState device, CancellationToken ct, TimeSpan? timeoutOverride = null, bool bypassBackoff = false)
    {
        // Fast path — already connected, no gate needed.
        if (device.Client is { IsConnected: true } fast) return fast;

        await device.ConnectGate.WaitAsync(ct).ConfigureAwait(false);
        try
        {
            return await EnsureConnectedUnderGateAsync(device, ct, timeoutOverride, bypassBackoff).ConfigureAwait(false);
        }
        finally
        {
            device.ConnectGate.Release();
        }
    }

    /// <summary>
    ///     Thrown by the connect path when a per-device <see cref="ConnectionBackoff"/> window is
    ///     still open (05/STAB-8) — a fail-fast that costs no wire traffic. Read/write map it to
    ///     <c>BadCommunicationError</c> via their generic catch, exactly as a real connect failure.
    /// </summary>
    private sealed class ConnectionThrottledException(string message) : Exception(message);

    /// <summary>
    ///     The connect-or-reconnect core, assuming the caller already holds
    ///     <see cref="DeviceState.ConnectGate"/>. When it installs a NEW client (a genuine
    ///     reconnect, not a fast-path reuse) it replays every stored native-notification intent
    ///     onto it — otherwise native ADS pushes would silently stop after a drop. Both
    ///     the initial subscribe (<see cref="RegisterNotificationAsync"/>) and the probe loop call
    ///     through here under the same gate, so a replay can never race a register.
    /// </summary>
    private async Task<ITwinCATClient> EnsureConnectedUnderGateAsync(
        DeviceState device, CancellationToken ct, TimeSpan? timeoutOverride, bool bypassBackoff = false)
    {
        // Re-check under the gate: another caller may have connected while we waited.
        if (device.Client is { IsConnected: true } c) return c;

        // 05/STAB-8: inside an open backoff window a data-path caller fails fast — no client
        // create, no wire connect. The probe loop bypasses this (its interval is the recovery
        // cadence) and drives the failure/success recording.
        if (!bypassBackoff && !device.Backoff.ShouldAttempt(DateTime.UtcNow))
            throw new ConnectionThrottledException(
                $"TwinCAT connect to {device.Options.HostAddress} throttled — backoff window open after a recent connect failure.");

        // Discard a stale (created-but-disconnected) client before making a fresh one.
        if (device.Client is { IsConnected: false } stale)
        {
            stale.OnSymbolVersionChanged -= HandleSymbolVersionChanged;
            try { stale.Dispose(); } catch { /* best-effort */ }
            device.Client = null;
        }

        var client = _clientFactory.Create();
        client.OnSymbolVersionChanged += HandleSymbolVersionChanged;
        // timeoutOverride lets the probe loop use TwinCATProbeOptions.Timeout for probe-
        // initiated connects rather than the driver-level _options.Timeout. Reads / writes
        // pass null and get the driver default.
        var effectiveTimeout = timeoutOverride ?? _options.Timeout;
        try
        {
            await client.ConnectAsync(device.ParsedAddress, effectiveTimeout, ct)
                .ConfigureAwait(false);
            _logger.LogInformation(
                "TwinCAT driver '{DriverInstanceId}' connected to {HostAddress}",
                _driverInstanceId, device.Options.HostAddress);
        }
        catch (Exception ex)
        {
            _logger.LogWarning(ex,
                "TwinCAT driver '{DriverInstanceId}' failed to connect to {HostAddress}",
                _driverInstanceId, device.Options.HostAddress);
            client.OnSymbolVersionChanged -= HandleSymbolVersionChanged;
            client.Dispose();
            device.Backoff.RecordFailure(DateTime.UtcNow); // 05/STAB-8: open the backoff window
            throw;
        }
        device.Client = client;
        device.Backoff.RecordSuccess(); // 05/STAB-8: recovery resets the window immediately

        // Re-register every native notification onto the fresh client. Native ADS is push, so
        // (unlike the poll fallback) it cannot self-heal by re-reading — without this the
        // subscription is silently dead after a reconnect.
        await ReplayNativeRegistrationsAsync(device, client, ct).ConfigureAwait(false);
        return client;
    }

    /// <summary>
    ///     Re-registers every stored <see cref="NativeRegistration"/> for a device onto the given
    ///     freshly-connected client and swaps in the new live handle (disposing the dead one from
    ///     the previous client). Runs under <see cref="DeviceState.ConnectGate"/>. A single
    ///     registration that fails to replay is logged and skipped — one bad symbol must not abort
    ///     recovery of the rest.
    /// </summary>
    private async Task ReplayNativeRegistrationsAsync(DeviceState device, ITwinCATClient client, CancellationToken ct)
    {
        var intents = device.NativeRegistrations.Values.ToArray();
        if (intents.Length == 0) return;

        var replayed = 0;
        foreach (var reg in intents)
        {
            try
            {
                var newHandle = await client.AddNotificationAsync(
                    reg.SymbolName, reg.DataType, reg.BitIndex, reg.Interval,
                    _options.NotificationMaxDelayMs, reg.OnChange, ct).ConfigureAwait(false);
                var old = reg.SwapHandle(newHandle);
                try { old?.Dispose(); } catch { /* dead handle from the disposed client */ }
                // 05/STAB-17: an UnsubscribeAsync (gate-free) can race this replay — if it removed the
                // registration between the intents snapshot and this swap, the fresh handle is
                // ownerless. Retract it immediately so the ADS notification isn't leaked live.
                if (!device.NativeRegistrations.ContainsKey(reg.Id))
                {
                    var orphan = reg.MarkHandleDead();
                    try { orphan?.Dispose(); } catch { /* best-effort */ }
                    continue;
                }
                replayed++;
            }
            catch (Exception ex)
            {
                _logger.LogWarning(ex,
                    "TwinCAT driver '{DriverInstanceId}' failed to replay native notification " +
                    "'{Symbol}' on device '{HostAddress}' after reconnect",
                    _driverInstanceId, reg.SymbolName, device.Options.HostAddress);

                // 05/STAB-16: the intent has no live handle now — mark it dead so the probe-tick
                // retry re-registers it, surface Bad quality to subscribers (the OnChange shape has
                // no quality channel), and degrade health preserving the last successful read.
                var dead = reg.MarkHandleDead();
                try { dead?.Dispose(); } catch { /* already-dead handle from the disposed client */ }
                try { reg.OnUnavailable(); } catch { /* never let a subscriber callback abort recovery of the rest */ }
                if (_health.State != DriverState.Faulted)
                    _health = new DriverHealth(DriverState.Degraded, _health.LastSuccessfulRead,
                        $"native-notification replay failed for '{reg.SymbolName}' on {device.Options.HostAddress}");
            }
        }

        _logger.LogInformation(
            "TwinCAT driver '{DriverInstanceId}' re-registered {Replayed}/{Total} native notifications " +
            "on device '{HostAddress}' after reconnect",
            _driverInstanceId, replayed, intents.Length, device.Options.HostAddress);
    }

    /// <summary>
    ///     05/STAB-16: re-registers every dead (failed-replay) <see cref="NativeRegistration"/> onto
    ///     the device's currently-connected client. Runs under <see cref="DeviceState.ConnectGate"/>
    ///     (shared with the replay so it can't race a register/unsubscribe). Called from the probe
    ///     loop after a successful probe — a bounded retry cadence (the probe interval) with no extra
    ///     timers. A registration that fails again just stays dead for the next tick. Recovery of the
    ///     value itself arrives via ADS's initial-notification push on register, exactly as the
    ///     initial subscribe relies on.
    /// </summary>
    private async Task RetryDeadRegistrationsAsync(DeviceState device, CancellationToken ct)
    {
        if (device.NativeRegistrations.IsEmpty) return;

        await device.ConnectGate.WaitAsync(ct).ConfigureAwait(false);
        try
        {
            if (device.Client is not { IsConnected: true } client) return;

            var recovered = 0;
            foreach (var reg in device.NativeRegistrations.Values)
            {
                if (reg.HasLiveHandle) continue;
                try
                {
                    var newHandle = await client.AddNotificationAsync(
                        reg.SymbolName, reg.DataType, reg.BitIndex, reg.Interval,
                        _options.NotificationMaxDelayMs, reg.OnChange, ct).ConfigureAwait(false);
                    reg.SwapHandle(newHandle);
                    // STAB-17 ownership re-check — see ReplayNativeRegistrationsAsync.
                    if (!device.NativeRegistrations.ContainsKey(reg.Id))
                    {
                        var orphan = reg.MarkHandleDead();
                        try { orphan?.Dispose(); } catch { /* best-effort */ }
                        continue;
                    }
                    recovered++;
                }
                catch (OperationCanceledException) when (ct.IsCancellationRequested) { throw; }
                catch (Exception ex)
                {
                    _logger.LogDebug(ex,
                        "TwinCAT driver '{DriverInstanceId}' probe-tick retry of dead notification " +
                        "'{Symbol}' on device '{HostAddress}' failed; will retry next tick",
                        _driverInstanceId, reg.SymbolName, device.Options.HostAddress);
                }
            }

            if (recovered > 0)
                _logger.LogInformation(
                    "TwinCAT driver '{DriverInstanceId}' recovered {Recovered} dead native notification(s) " +
                    "on device '{HostAddress}' via probe-tick retry",
                    _driverInstanceId, recovered, device.Options.HostAddress);
        }
        finally
        {
            device.ConnectGate.Release();
        }
    }

    /// <summary>
    ///     Disposes + nulls a device's client under <see cref="DeviceState.ConnectGate"/> so the
    ///     next <see cref="EnsureConnectedAsync"/> rebuilds it (and replays notifications). Called
    ///     by the probe loop when a wire-level probe fails on a locally-"connected" client — the
    ///     <see cref="ITwinCATClient.IsConnected"/> fast-path keys on the AMS-port state, not wire
    ///     liveness, so without this forced recycle a wire-dead-but-port-open client would keep
    ///     being reused and native pushes would never recover.
    /// </summary>
    private async Task RecycleClientAsync(DeviceState device, CancellationToken ct)
    {
        // 05/STAB-12 (compounded part): honor the probe token so a connect wedged under the gate
        // (TwinCAT's blocking SDK Connect — the un-fixed root, carried) can't hang the probe loop
        // beyond cancellation. Was CancellationToken.None.
        await device.ConnectGate.WaitAsync(ct).ConfigureAwait(false);
        try
        {
            if (device.Client is { } c)
            {
                c.OnSymbolVersionChanged -= HandleSymbolVersionChanged;
                try { c.Dispose(); } catch { /* best-effort */ }
                device.Client = null;
            }
        }
        finally
        {
            device.ConnectGate.Release();
        }
    }

    /// <summary>
    ///     Routes a wire-detected ADS symbol-version-changed (DeviceSymbolVersionInvalid 1809 /
    ///     0x0711) to Core as an <see cref="IRediscoverable"/> invocation.
    ///     A PLC re-download invalidates every symbol + notification handle, so the address
    ///     space must be rebuilt — this is the documented TwinCAT failure mode, not a transient
    ///     connection error.
    /// </summary>
    private void HandleSymbolVersionChanged(object? sender, EventArgs e) =>
        OnRediscoveryNeeded?.Invoke(this, new RediscoveryEventArgs(
            "TwinCAT symbol-version-changed (DeviceSymbolVersionInvalid 0x0711) — PLC program re-downloaded",
            ScopeHint: "TwinCAT"));

    /// <summary>
    ///     Synchronous teardown — no <c>await</c>, no captured sync context. The OPC UA stack
    ///     thread can call <see cref="Dispose"/>; routing through <c>DisposeAsync().GetResult()</c>
    ///     can deadlock on a single-threaded sync context (see docs/v2/driver-stability.md).
    ///     The operations here are all genuinely synchronous —
    ///     cancel tokens, wait on task handles with a hard timeout, dispose clients — so a
    ///     synchronous path does the right thing without re-entering the scheduler.
    /// </summary>
    /// <summary>Synchronously disposes driver resources without awaiting async operations.</summary>
    public void Dispose()
    {
        // Dispose native subscriptions first — handle disposal is sync.
        foreach (var sub in _nativeSubs.Values)
            foreach (var r in sub.Registrations) { try { r.Dispose(); } catch { } }
        _nativeSubs.Clear();

        // PollGroupEngine.DisposeAsync awaits loop tasks; we drive that synchronously here
        // (bounded wait — same 5s ceiling DisposeAsync uses internally) using Wait() on the
        // returned ValueTask so no sync-context capture happens.
        try { _poll.DisposeAsync().AsTask().Wait(TimeSpan.FromSeconds(5)); } catch { }

        foreach (var state in _devices.Values)
        {
            try { state.ProbeCts?.Cancel(); } catch { }
            if (state.ProbeTask is Task pt)
            {
                try { pt.Wait(TimeSpan.FromSeconds(2)); } catch { /* probe-cancel races are expected */ }
            }
            state.ProbeCts?.Dispose();
            state.ProbeCts = null;
            state.DisposeClient();
            state.DisposeGate();
        }
        _devices.Clear();
        _tagsByRawPath.Clear();
        _resolver.Clear(); // no-op in v3 (the resolver reads the live table by closure); kept for symmetry
        // Dispose + clear the per-parent-word RMW gates (mirrors ShutdownAsync) so the
        // SemaphoreSlim instances aren't orphaned on disposal.
        foreach (var sem in _bitRmwLocks.Values) sem.Dispose();
        _bitRmwLocks.Clear();
        _health = new DriverHealth(DriverState.Unknown, _health.LastSuccessfulRead, null);
    }

    /// <summary>Asynchronously disposes driver resources.</summary>
    /// <returns>Completion task.</returns>
    public async ValueTask DisposeAsync() => await ShutdownAsync(CancellationToken.None).ConfigureAwait(false);

    internal sealed class DeviceState(TwinCATAmsAddress parsedAddress, TwinCATDeviceOptions options)
    {
        /// <summary>Gets the parsed AMS address for the device.</summary>
        public TwinCATAmsAddress ParsedAddress { get; } = parsedAddress;
        /// <summary>Gets the device configuration options.</summary>
        public TwinCATDeviceOptions Options { get; } = options;
        /// <summary>Gets or sets the active ADS client for this device.</summary>
        public ITwinCATClient? Client { get; set; }

        /// <summary>Serializes connect / reconnect so concurrent callers never race a client
        ///     create-or-dispose for this device.</summary>
        public SemaphoreSlim ConnectGate { get; } = new(1, 1);

        /// <summary>
        ///     Per-device connect-attempt throttle (05/STAB-8). A dead device fails fast inside the
        ///     backoff window instead of paying a full connect on every data call; the probe loop
        ///     bypasses it and a successful connect resets it. Consulted + mutated only under
        ///     <see cref="ConnectGate"/>, satisfying <see cref="ConnectionBackoff"/>'s
        ///     caller-synchronized contract.
        /// </summary>
        public ConnectionBackoff Backoff { get; } = new(TimeSpan.FromSeconds(1), TimeSpan.FromSeconds(30));

        /// <summary>
        ///     Live native-notification registrations against this device, keyed by registration id.
        ///     Holds the <b>replayable intent</b> (symbol / type / bit / interval / callback), not just
        ///     an opaque handle, so that when <see cref="TwinCATDriver.EnsureConnectedAsync"/> swaps in
        ///     a fresh client after a drop it can re-register every notification onto it.
        ///     Populated by <c>SubscribeAsync</c>, drained by <c>UnsubscribeAsync</c> / teardown.
        /// </summary>
        public ConcurrentDictionary<long, NativeRegistration> NativeRegistrations { get; } = new();

        /// <summary>Gets the lock object for synchronizing host state transitions.</summary>
        public object ProbeLock { get; } = new();
        /// <summary>Gets or sets the current host connectivity state.</summary>
        public HostState HostState { get; set; } = HostState.Unknown;
        /// <summary>Gets or sets the UTC timestamp of the last host state change.</summary>
        public DateTime HostStateChangedUtc { get; set; } = DateTime.UtcNow;
        /// <summary>Gets or sets the cancellation token source for the probe loop.</summary>
        public CancellationTokenSource? ProbeCts { get; set; }
        /// <summary>The running probe-loop task — awaited by <see cref="TwinCATDriver.ShutdownAsync"/>
        ///     so the loop cannot touch a disposed client.</summary>
        public Task? ProbeTask { get; set; }

        /// <summary>Disposes the active ADS client if any.</summary>
        public void DisposeClient()
        {
            Client?.Dispose();
            Client = null;
        }

        /// <summary>Disposes the connection gate semaphore.</summary>
        public void DisposeGate() => ConnectGate.Dispose();
    }
}